Differences

This shows you the differences between two versions of the page.

--- other:python:misc_by_jyp [2022/05/23 17:36] – [numpy related stuff] Added the "variable number of indices" section jypeter
+++ other:python:misc_by_jyp [2025/10/31 11:28] (current) – [Using a decorator to log function calls] jypeter
@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 </WRAP>
-==== Reading/setting environments variables ====
+===== Extra tutorials =====
+Only **when you have already read all the content of this page several times**, and you are looking for new ideas
+  * [[https://medium.com/data-science/calculating-distance-between-two-geolocations-in-python-26ad3afe287b|Calculating distance between two geo-locations in Python]]:
+    * ''[[https://github.com/mapado/haversine|haversine]]'', ''[[https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/generated/sklearn.metrics.pairwise.haversine_distances.html|haversine_distances]] @ scikit-learn'' and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haversine_formula|Haversine formula]]
+  * Looking at table data with ''pandas''
+    * [[https://blog.devgenius.io/data-profiling-in-python-common-ways-to-explore-your-data-part-1-0efd0dedff75|Summary information]]
+    * [[https://blog.devgenius.io/data-profiling-in-python-common-ways-to-explore-your-data-part-2-396384522e91|More detailed information]]
+    * [[https://blog.devgenius.io/data-cleansing-in-python-common-ways-to-clean-your-data-3459a256dd85|Table data cleaning]]
+  * Stats stuff
+    * [[https://medium.com/@tubelwj/python-outlier-detection-iqr-method-and-z-score-implementation-8e825edf4b32|Python Outlier Detection: IQR Method and Z-score Implementation]]
+  * [[https://medium.com/pythons-gurus/clean-code-in-python-good-vs-bad-practices-examples-2df344bddacc|Clean Code in Python: Good vs. Bad Practices Examples]]
+  * [[https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/|PEP 8 – Style Guide for Python Code]]
+    * [[https://realpython.com/python-pep8/|How to Write Beautiful Python Code With PEP 8]]
+    * [[https://www.datacamp.com/tutorial/pep8-tutorial-python-code|PEP-8 Tutorial: Code Standards in Python]]
+    * Some checkers/linters: [[https://docs.astral.sh/ruff/|ruff]], [[https://flake8.pycqa.org/en/stable/|flake8]]
+  * [[https://medium.com/@yaduvanshineelam09/ultimate-python-cheat-sheet-practical-python-for-everyday-tasks-8a33abc0892f|Ultimate Python Cheat Sheet: Practical Python For Everyday Tasks]]
+  * [[https://medium.com/pythoneers/16-hacks-that-will-take-your-python-skills-to-the-next-level-12e7a9b97421|16 Hacks That Will Take Your Python Skills to the Next Level]]
+  * [[https://levelup.gitconnected.com/modular-coding-in-python-finally-solve-your-import-errors-af2fd172fcf7|Modular Coding in Python: Finally Solve your Import Errors]] (understanding and fixing ModuleNotFoundError and ImportError)
+  * [[https://medium.com/@moraneus/understanding-multithreading-and-multiprocessing-in-python-1ed39bb078d5|Understanding Multithreading and Multiprocessing in Python]]
+===== Reading/setting environments variables =====
 <code>>>> os.environ['TMPDIR']
@@ Line 17: / Line 37: @@
 </code>
-==== Generating (aka raising) an error ====
+===== Generating (aka raising) an error =====
 This will stop the script, unless it is called in a function, and the code calling the function explicitely catches and deals with errors
@@ Line 25: / Line 46: @@
-==== Stopping a script ====
+===== Using log files (aka logging) =====
+It is always possible to display information messages using the ''print()'' command, but it is more efficient to use //logging// tools when you want to **display correctly a lot of information about a script progress
+**
+  * [[https://loguru.readthedocs.io/|Loguru]] is a library which aims to bring enjoyable logging in Python
+    * See also [[https://betterstack.com/community/guides/logging/loguru/|A Complete Guide to Logging in Python with Loguru]]
+  * More on [[https://betterstack.com/community/guides/logging/#python|logging with python]]
+  * The default (but not easy to use) Python ''[[https://docs.python.org/3/library/logging.html|logging]]'' module
+===== Stopping a script =====
 A user can use ''CTRL-C'' or ''kill'' to stop a script, or ''CTRL-Z'' to suspend it temporarily (use ''fg'' to resume a suspended script). The code below can be used by the script itself to interrupt its execution, instead of raising an error
 <code>sys.exit('Some optional message about why we are stopping')</code>
+===== Checking if a file/directory is writable by the current user =====
-==== Checking if a file/directory is writable by the current user ====
 <code>>>> os.access('/', os.W_OK)
@@ Line 39: / Line 66: @@
 True</code>
-==== Playing with strings ====
-=== Filenames, etc... ===
+===== Playing with strings =====
+==== String formatting ====
+  * Knowing how to display/print a string correctly is always useful for information and debugging purpose
+  * There are lots of different ways to display strings
+=== String formatting examples ===
+You will find below some examples of //quick printing//, as well as using //old style formatting//, //formatted string literals (f-strings)// and the //String ''format()'' Method//. More details in the next section
+<code python>
+>>> # Basic (but quick and efficient) printing
+>>> year = 1984
+>>> print(year)
+
+>>> print('[', year, 'is a famous book ]')
+[ 1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> # Old style formatting
+>>> print('[ %i is a famous book ]' % (year,))
+[ 1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ %10i is a famous book ]' % (year,))
+[       1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ %-10i is a famous book ]' % (year,))
+[ 1984       is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ %010i is a famous book ]' % (year,))
+[ 0000001984 is a famous book ]
+>>> # Formatted string literals (f-strings)
+>>> print(f'[ {year} is a famous book ]')
+[ 1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print(f'[ {year=} is a famous book ]')
+[ year=1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print(f'[ {year:10} is a famous book ]')
+[       1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print(f'[ {year:<10} is a famous book ]')
+[ 1984       is a famous book ]
+>>> print(f'[ {year:010} is a famous book ]')
+[ 0000001984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print(f'[ {year:10.2f} is a famous book (yes, {year}!) ]')
+[    1984.00 is a famous book (yes, 1984!) ]
+>>> # The String format() Method
+>>> print('[ {} is a famous book ]'.format(year))
+[ 1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ {:10} is a famous book ]'.format(year))
+[       1984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ {:<10} is a famous book ]'.format(year))
+[ 1984       is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ {:010} is a famous book ]'.format(year))
+[ 0000001984 is a famous book ]
+>>> print('[ {:10.2f} is a famous book  (yes, {}!) ]'.format(year, year))
+[    1984.00 is a famous book  (yes, 1984!) ]
+>>> print('[ {title:10.2f} is a famous book  (yes, {title}!) ]'.format(title=year))
+[    1984.00 is a famous book  (yes, 1984!) ]
+>>> print('[ {title:10.2e} is a famous book ]'.format(title=year))
+[   1.98e+03 is a famous book ]</code>
+=== String formatting references ===
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#formatted-string-literals|Formatted String Literals]] (//f-strings//)
+    * Available in Python >= 3.6
+    * [[https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings|More documentation]]
+    * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#formatspec|Format Specification Mini-Language]]
+      * See also the [[https://pyformat.info/|PyFormat site]]
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method|The String format() Method]]
+    * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#formatspec|Format Specification Mini-Language]]
+      * See also the [[https://pyformat.info/|PyFormat site]]
-Check [[other:python:misc_by_jyp#working_with_paths_and_filenames|Working with paths and filenames]] and [[other:python:misc_by_jyp#generating_file_names|Generating file names]]
+  * [[https://pyformat.info/|PyFormat site]]: string formatting using the //old style// and the //String ''format()'' method//
+    * <wrap hi>Hint</wrap>: this can also be used as an **easy documentation for //f-strings// format**!
-=== Splitting strings ===
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#the-string-format-method|Old string formatting]]
+==== Splitting (complex) strings ====
 It's easy to split a string with multiple blank delimiters, or a specific delimiter, but it can be harder to deal with sub-strings
@@ Line 64: / Line 165: @@
 >>> shlex.split(complex_string)
 ['-o', '1', '--long', 'A string with accented chars: \xc3\xa9 \xc3\xa8 \xc3\xa0 \xc3\xa7']</code>
 ==== Working with paths and filenames ====
-If you are in a hurry, you can just use string functions to work with path and file names. But you will need some specific functions to check if a file exists, and similar operations. All these are available in 2 libraries that have similar functions. Both of these libraries can deal with Unix-type paths on Linux computers, and Windows-type paths on Windows computers
+If you are in a hurry, you can just use string functions to work with paths and file names.
+You will need some specific objects and functions to check if a file exists, and similar operations. Check the libraries listed below, that can automatically deal with Unix-type paths on Linux and MacOS computers, and Windows-type paths on Windows computers
-  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/os.path.html|os.path]] //Common pathname manipulations//
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/os.path.html|os.path]]: //common pathname manipulations//
     * Available since... a long time! Use this if you want to avoid backward compatibility problems
     * Some functions are directly in [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/os.html|os]] //Miscellaneous operating system interfaces//\\ e.g. [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/os.html#os.remove|os.remove]] and [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/os.html#os.rmdir|os.rmdir]]
-  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/pathlib.html|pathlib]] //Object-oriented filesystem paths//
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/pathlib.html|pathlib]]: a **more recent** //object-oriented// way to deal with //filesystem paths//
     * Available since Python version 3.4
     * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/pathlib.html#correspondence-to-tools-in-the-os-module|Matching pathlib, and os or os.path functions]]
-  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/shutil.html|High-level file operations]]
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/shutil.html|shutil]]: High-level file operations, e.g copy/move a file or directory tree
-=== Example: getting the full path of the Python used ===
+=== Example: getting the full path of the Python executable used ===
 Note: the actual python may be different from the default python!
@@ Line 84: / Line 190: @@
 /usr/bin/python
-$ /modfs/modtools/miniconda3//envs/analyse_3.6_test/bin/python
+$ /home/share/unix_files/cdat/miniconda3_21-02/envs/cdatm_py3/bin/python
 >>> import sys, shutil
 >>> shutil.which('python')
 '/usr/bin/python'
 >>> sys.executable
-'/modfs/modtools/miniconda3//envs/analyse_3.6_test/bin/python'</code>
+'/home/share/unix_files/cdat/miniconda3_21-02/envs/cdatm_py3/bin/python'</code>
@@ Line 105: / Line 211: @@
 </code>
+=== Example: system independent paths with pathlib ===
+Note: the following example was generated on a Linux server and uses a <wrap em>/</wrap> character as a path separator
+<code>>>> my_home = Path.home()
+>>> my_home
+PosixPath('/home/users/my_login')
+>>> my_conf = my_home / '.config' / 'evince'
+>>> my_conf
+PosixPath('/home/users/my_login/.config/evince')
+>>> my_conf.is_dir()
+True
+>>> my_conf.is_file()
+False
+>>> list(my_conf.glob('*'))
+[PosixPath('/home/users/my_login/.config/evince/evince_toolbar.xml'), PosixPath(' /home/users/my_login/.config/evince/accels')]
+>>> [ ff.name for ff in my_conf.glob('*') ]
+['evince_toolbar.xml', 'accels']
+</code>
 === Example: getting the size(s) of all the files in a directory ===
@@ Line 149: / Line 275: @@
 >>> f_tmp.close()
 >>> os.remove(f_tmp.name)</code>
-==== Using command-line arguments ====
-=== The extremely easy but non-flexible way: sys.argv ===
+===== Using command-line arguments =====
+==== The extremely easy but non-flexible way: sys.argv ====
 The name of a script, the number of arguments (including the name of the script), and the arguments (as strings) can be accessed through the ''sys.argv'' strings' list
@@ Line 173: / Line 301: @@
 tas_tes.nc</code>
-=== The C-style way: getopt ===
+==== The C-style way: getopt ====
 Use [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/getopt.html|getopt]] (//C-style parser for command line options//)
-=== The deprecated Python way: optparse ===
+==== The deprecated Python way: optparse ====
 [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/optparse.html|optparse]] (//parser for command line options//) is **deprecated since Python version 3.2**! You should now use argparse (check [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code|Upgrading optparse code]] for converting from ''optparse'' to ''argparse'')
-=== The current Python way: argparse ===
+==== The current Python way: argparse ====
 [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/argparse.html|argparse]] (//parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands//) is available since Python version 3.2
-==== Using ordered dictionaries ====
+===== Using ordered dictionaries =====
 **Dictionary order is guaranteed to be insertion order**! Note that the [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#dict|usual Python dictionary]] also guarantees the order since version **3.6**
@@ Line 191: / Line 323: @@
 Check the [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.OrderedDict|OrderedDict class]] (''from collections import OrderedDict'') and the [[https://realpython.com/python-ordereddict/|OrderedDict vs dict in Python: The Right Tool for the Job]] tutorial
-==== Using sets ====
+===== Using sets =====
 [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#sets|Python sets]] are **groups of unique elements**. They can be used to easily find all the unique elements of //something// and you can easily determine the **intersection**, **union** (and other similar operations) of sets.
-==== Printing a readable version of long lists or dictionaries ====
+===== Printing a readable version of long lists or dictionaries =====
 The [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/pprint.html|pprint]] module can be used for //pretty printing// objects (lists, dictionaries, ...). It will wrap long lines in a meaningful way
@@ Line 229: / Line 363: @@
 </code>
-==== Sorting ====
+===== Storing objects and data in a file (shelve and friends) =====
+The built-in [[other:python:jyp_steps#the_shelve_package|shelve]] module can be **easily** used for storing temporary/intermediate data
+More options:
+  * Some [[other:python:jyp_steps#data_file_formats|non-NetCDF]] file formats
+  * Working with [[other:python:jyp_steps#netcdf_filesusing_cdms2_xarray_and_netcdf4|NetCDF]] files
+===== Using a configuration file =====
+The built-in [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/configparser.html|configparser]] module can be easily used for reading (**and** writing!) text configuration files.
+Note: a configuration file is also a way to easily store and exchange text data !
+===== Working with global variables =====
+There is a good chance you don't actually want/need a //global// variable. Be sure to use the ''global'' statement correctly if you want to avoid side-effects...
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/faq/programming.html?highlight=global#why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value|Using (and changing) a global variable inside a script or module]]
+    * Simple module example\\ <code>_myvar = 10
+def set_myvar(new_val):
+    # Note: need to explicitly define a global variable (of a module)
+    # as 'global' BEFORE changing its value in a function!
+    # Otherwise, the value will not be REdefined outside the function
+    global _myvar
+    _myvar = new_val
+def get_myvar():
+    return _myvar
+def myfunc(nb_repeat = 10):
+    print(nb_repeat * _myvar)</code>
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/faq/programming.html?highlight=global#how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules|Sharing global variables across modules]]
+===== Sorting =====
   * When dealing with **numerical values**, you should use the [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/routines.sort.html|numpy sorting, searching, and counting routines]]!
@@ Line 246: / Line 417: @@
 ['c', 'd', 'b', 'a']</code>
-==== numpy related stuff ====
-=== Dealing with a variable number of indices ===
+===== Efficient looping with numpy, map, itertools and list comprehension =====
+<wrap hi>Big, nested, explicit ''for'' loops should be avoided at all cost</wrap>, in order to reduce a script execution time!
+  * **''numpy'' arrays** should be used when dealing with //numerical data//
+    * **Masked arrays** can be used to deal with //special cases// and remove tests from loops
+  * The built-in [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html?highlight=map#map|map]] function (and similar functions like [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html?highlight=zip#zip|zip]], [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html?highlight=filter#filter|filter]], ...) can be used to efficiently apply a function (possibly a //simple// [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#lambda-expressions|lambda]] function) to all the elements of a list
+    * <code>>>> my_ints = [1, 2, 3]
+>>> map(str, my_ints)
+['1', '2', '3']
+>>> map(lambda ii: str(10*ii + 5), my_ints)
+['15', '25', '35']</code>
+  * The [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html|itertools]] module defines many more fancy iterators that can be used for efficient looping
+    * Example: replacing nested loops with [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/itertools.html#itertools.product|product]]
+      * <code>>>> it.product('AB', '01')
+<itertools.product object at 0x2b35a7b5f100>
+>>> list(it.product('AB', '01'))
+[('A', '0'), ('A', '1'), ('B', '0'), ('B', '1')]
+>>> for c1, c2 in it.product('AB', '01'):
+...   print(c1 + c2)
+...
+A0
+A1
+B0
+B1
+>>> for c1, c2 in it.product(['A', 'B'], ['0', '1']):
+...   print(c1 + c2)
+...
+A0
+A1
+B0
+B1
+>>> for c1, c2, c3 in it.product('AB', '01', '$!'):
+...   print(c1 + c2 + c3, end=', ')
+...
+A0$, A0!, A1$, A1!, B0$, B0!, B1$, B1!,</code>
+  * The [[https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html?highlight=comprehension#list-comprehensions|list comprehension]] (aka //implicit loops//) can also be used to generate lists from lists
+    * Example: converting a list of integers to a list of strings\\ Note: in that case, you should rather use the ''map'' function detailed above
+      * <code>>>> my_ints = [1, 2, 3]
+>>> [ str(ii) for ii in my_ints ]
+['1', '2', '3']</code>
+===== numpy related stuff =====
+==== Using a numpy array to store arbitrary objects ====
+The numpy arrays are usually used to store [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.scalars.html|scalars]] of the same type (see also the [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.dtypes.html|Data type objects (dtype)]]), very often numerical values.
+It is also possible to store **arbitrary** Python objects in an array, rather than using nested lists or dictionaries!
+<code>>>> some_array = np.empty((2, 3), dtype=object)
+>>> some_array
+array([[None, None, None],
+       [None, None, None]], dtype=object)
+>>> some_array.shape
+(2, 3)
+>>> print(some_array[-1, -1])
+None
+>>> some_array[-1, 0] = filled_contour # e.g. save an existing cartopy filled contour object
+>>> some_array
+array([[None, None, None],
+       [<cartopy.mpl.contour.GeoContourSet object at 0x2ab679e8bf10>,
+        None, None]], dtype=object)</code>
+==== Dealing with a variable number of indices ====
 [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#dealing-with-variable-indices|Official reference]]
@@ Line 291: / Line 535: @@
 (4, 10)
->>> # WARNING! WARNING! A slice is a VIEW and NOT A COPY
+>>> # WARNING! DANGERRRR! NEVER forget that a VIEW is NOT A COPY
->>> i10[my_fancy_slices] = -1
+>>> # and that you can change the content of the original array by mistake
+>>> my_view = i10[my_slices]
+>>> my_view[:, :] = -1
+>>> my_view
+array([[-1., -1.],
+       [-1., -1.],
+       [-1., -1.],
+       [-1., -1.]])
 >>> i10
 array([[ 1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
        [ 0.,  1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
        [ 0.,  0.,  1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
-       [-1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1.],
+       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  1., -1., -1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
-       [-1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1.],
+       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0., -1., -1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
-       [-1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1.],
+       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0., -1., -1.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
-       [-1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1., -1.],
+       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0., -1., -1.,  1.,  0.,  0.,  0.],
        [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  1.,  0.,  0.],
        [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  1.,  0.],
-       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  1.]])
+       [ 0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  0.,  1.]])</code>
-</code>
-=== Finding and counting unique values ===
+==== Finding and counting unique values ====
 Use ''np.unique'', do **not** try to use histogram related functions!
@@ Line 326: / Line 577: @@
 array([1. , 1. , 1. , 1.5, 1.5, 1.5, 2. , 2. , 2. , 2. ])</code>
-=== Applying a ufunc over all the elements of an array ===
+==== Applying a ufunc over all the elements of an array ====
 There are all sorts of //ufuncs// (Universal Functions), and we will just use below ''add'' from the [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#math-operations|math operations]], applied on the arrays defined in [[#finding_and_counting_unique_values|Finding and counting unique values]]
@@ Line 359: / Line 611: @@
 (3.0, 4.5, 8.0)</code>
-=== Applying a ufunc over specified sections of an array ===
+==== Applying a ufunc over specified sections of an array ====
 The [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/generated/numpy.ufunc.reduceat.html#numpy.ufunc.reduceat|reduceat]] function can be used to avoid explicit python loops, and improve the speed (but not the readability...) of a script. The example below //improves// what has been shown above
@@ Line 377: / Line 630: @@
 >>> np.add.reduceat(np.sort(vals), slices_indices)
 array([3. , 4.5, 8. ])</code>
+==== Exercise your brain with numpy ====
+Have a look at [[https://github.com/rougier/numpy-100/blob/master/100_Numpy_exercises.ipynb|100 numpy exercises]]
+===== matplotlib related stuff =====
+==== Working with time axes (and ticks) ====
+If you have problems setting the limits of a time axis, choosing the ticks' locations, or specifying the style of the labels, you should check the:
+  * [[https://matplotlib.org/stable/gallery/index.html#ticks|Ticks examples' gallery]]
+  * [[https://matplotlib.org/stable/gallery/text_labels_and_annotations/date.html|Date tick labels example]]
+===== Data representation =====
+A few notes for a future section or page about about //data representation// (bits and bytes) on disk and in memory, vs //data format//
+FIXME Add parts (pages 28 to 37) of this [[http://www.lsce.ipsl.fr/Phocea/file.php?class=page&file=5/pythonCDAT_jyp_2sur2_070306.pdf|old tutorial]] to this section
+==== Base notions ====
+  * **Never forget** that all the bits and pieces of information we use are coded in [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number#Counting_in_binary|base 2]] (''0''s and ''1''s ...), grouped in bytes!
+    * Some things can be stored exactly (integers, characters, ...)
+    * In other cases (**//real// numbers** that we work with all the time, compressed images/videos/music) we only store **//good enough approximation//**
+  * 1 byte <=> 8 bits
+    * ''REAL*4'' <=> 4 bytes <=> 32 bits
+    * For easier written/displayed representation, 1 byte is usually split into 2 groups of 4 bits, and displayed using base 16 and [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal|hexadecimal representation]] (characters ''0'', ''1'', ..., ''A'', ''B'', ..., ''F'')
+      * ''0000'' <=> ''0'',\\ ''0010'' <=> ''1'', ...,\\ ''1111'' <=> ''F''
+      * ''1101'' <=> ''D'' in hexadecimal <=> ''13'' in decimal (''**1** * 8 + **1** * 4 + **0** * 2 + **1** * 1'')
+      * ''11111101'' in //base 2// <=> ''1111 1101'' <=> ''FD'' in //hexadecimal// <=> ''253'' (''15 * 16 + 13'') in //decimal//
+  * Base conversion with Python
+    * <code>>>> hex(13) # Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion
+'0xd'
+>>> hex(253)
+'0xfd'
+>>> hex(256)
+'0x100'
+>>> int('0x100', 16) # Hexadecimal to Decimal conversion
+>>> int('1111', 2) # Binary to Decimal conversion
+>>> int('11111101', 2) # '11111101' <=> '1111 1101' <=> 'FD' <=> 15 * 16 + 13 = 253
+>>> 013 # DANGER! Python considers an integer to be in OCTAL base if it starts with a 0
+>>> int('13', 8) # 1*8 + 3
+</code>
+  * More technical topics
+    * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_numbering|Bit numbering]]: the art of ordering bits, everything about MSB (Most Significant Byte) and LSB (Least Significant Byte)
+    * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness|Endianness]]: the art of ordering bytes
+==== Numerical values ====
+  * Binary data representation of some numbers (only some common types are listed here):
+    * Languages and packages **references** used below:
+      * Python: [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.scalars.html#sized-aliases|NumPy Sized aliases]]
+      * NetCDF: [[https://docs.unidata.ucar.edu/nug/current/md_types.html|Data Types]], [[https://docs.unidata.ucar.edu/netcdf-fortran/current/f90-variables.html#f90-language-types-corresponding-to-netcdf-external-data-types|Fortran related Data Types]], [[https://docs.unidata.ucar.edu/nug/current/_c_d_l.html#cdl_data_types|CDL Data Types]]
+      * Fortran: Intel Fortran Compiler [[https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/docs/fortran-compiler/developer-guide-reference/2023-1/intrinsic-data-types.html|Intrinsic Data Types]]
+    * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_(computer_science)|Integers]]
+      * Range:
+        * 4-byte //signed// integers: ''−2,147,483,648'' to ''2,147,483,647''
+          * Python: ''numpy.int32''
+          * NetCDF: ''int'', ''NC_INT'' or ''NC_LONG'', ''NF90_INT''
+          * Fortran: ''INTEGER*4''
+        * 8-byte //signed// integers: ''−9,223,372,036,854,775,808'' to ''9,223,372,036,854,775,807''
+          * Python: ''numpy.int64''
+          * NetCDF: ''int64'', ''NC_INT64''
+          * Fortran: ''INTEGER*8''
+      * Tech note: signed integers use [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement|two's complement]] for coding negative integers
+    * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754|Floating point numbers]] (//IEEE 754// standard aka //IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point for Arithmetic//)
+      * Range:
+        * 4-byte float: ''~8 significant digits * 10E±38''
+          * Python: ''numpy.float32''
+          * NetCDF: ''float'', ''NC-FLOAT'', ''NF90_FLOAT''
+          * Fortran:''REAL*4''
+          * See also [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-precision_floating-point_format|Single-precision floating-point format]]
+        * 8-byte float: ''~15 significant digits * 10E±308''
+          * Python: ''numpy.float64''
+          * NetCDF: ''double'', ''NC_DOUBLE'', ''NF90_DOUBLE''
+          * Fortran: ''REAL*8''
+      * **Special values**:
+        * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN|NaN]]: //Not a Number//
+          * Python: ''numpy.nan''
+        * Infinity
+          * Python: ''-numpy.inf'' and ''numpy.inf''
+        * Note: it is cleaner to use masks (and [[https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/maskedarray.generic.html|Numpy masked arrays]]) rather than ''NaN''s, when you have to deal with missing values !
+      * <wrap hi>The RISKS of working with (the wrong) floats</wrap>:
+        * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error|Round-off error]]
+        * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_cancellation|Catastrophic cancellation]]
+          * [[https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19957-01/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html|What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic]]
+    * A rather technical example: we //play// with a numpy 4-byte integer scalar
+      * <code>>>> one_int32 = np.int32(1)
+>>> one_int32
+>>> type(one_int32)
+<class 'numpy.int32'>
+>>> one_int32.dtype
+dtype('int32')
+>>> one_int32.shape # A numpy SCALAR, is an ARRAY WITH NO SHAPE !
+()
+>>> one_int32[0]
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
+IndexError: invalid index to scalar variable.
+>>> one_int32[()] # Note how to access the single element, when there is NO SHAPE
+>>> one_int32.ndim # NO SHAPE means no dimensions, but there is ONE element
+>>> one_int32.size
+>>> one_int32.nbytes # The element requires 4 bytes of storage
+>>> hex(one_int32) # We can print the hexadecimal representation for INTEGERS scalars and arrays
+'0x1'
+>>> hex(one_int32 * 15)
+'0xf'
+>>> hex(one_int32 * 16)
+'0x10'
+# 'Serialize' the data (i.e. change the data to a series of bytes)
+# Note: the serialized data seems to be printed in the reverse order of 'hex(one_int32)'
+>>> one_int32_serialized = one_int32.tobytes()
+>>> type(one_int32_serialized)
+<class 'bytes'>
+>>> len(one_int32_serialized)
+>>> one_int32_serialized
+b'\x01\x00\x00\x00'
+>>> one_int32_serialized.hex(' ') # Another way to print the hexadecimal values
+'01 00 00 00'
+# Use the following in the unlikely case where you need to change the endianness (bytes ordering)
+>>> one_int32_reversed_endian = one_int32.byteswap()
+>>> one_int32_reversed_endian # Same bytes in a different order represent a different number (of course)
+16777216
+>>> hex(one_int32_reversed_endian) # Compare to the output of hex(one_int32) above
+'0x1000000'
+>>> one_int32_reversed_endian.tobytes()
+b'\x00\x00\x00\x01'</code>
+    * Another technical example: we use an array of 2 integers\\ When using ''byteswap()'', notice how bytes are swapped by groups of 4 bytes, because int32 use 4 bytes
+      * <code>>>> array_example = np.asarray((3, 17), dtype=np.int32)
+>>> array_example
+array([ 3, 17], dtype=int32)
+>>> array_example.shape, array_example.ndim, array_example.size, array_example.nbytes
+((2,), 1, 2, 8)
+>>> array_example.tobytes().hex(' ', 4)
+'03000000 11000000'
+>>> array_example.byteswap().tobytes().hex(' ', 4)
+'00000003 00000011'
+</code>
+  * Manipulating binary data with [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview|bytes, bytearray, memoryview]]
+  * Array addressing
+    * [[https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/calculation-of-address-of-element-of-1-d-2-d-and-3-d-using-row-major-and-column-major-order/|Calculation of address of element of 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D using row-major and column-major order]]
+      * In other words: //using indices to go from 1-D to n-Dimnensions data//
+    * The [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_(data_structure)|array]] structure
+    * python/C vs Fortran...
+  * disk and ram usage: how to check the usage (available ram and disk), best practice on multi-user systems (how much allowed?)
+    * ''du'', ''df'', ''cat /proc/meminfo'', ''top''
+  * understanding and reverse-engineering //binary// format
+    * ''od'', ''strings''
+  * binary vs text format: ascii, utf, raw
+    * text related functions in python: ''str'', ''int'', ''float'', ''ord'', ...
+      * lists conversion with ''map'' and ''join''
+  * Misc : ''md5sum''
+==== Strings ====
+  * Encoding, [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII|ASCII]], [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode|unicode]], [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8|UTF-8]], ...
+  * Getting the binary representation of a string
+    * <code>>>> test_string = 'A B 0 1 à µ'
+>>> type(test_string)
+<class 'str'>
+>>> len(test_string)
+>>> test_string_bin = test_string.encode('utf-8')
+>>> test_string_bin
+b'A B 0 1 \xc3\xa0 \xc2\xb5'
+>>> type(test_string_bin)
+<class 'bytes'>
+>>> len(test_string_bin)
+>>> test_string_bin.hex('-')
+'41-20-42-20-30-20-31-20-c3-a0-20-c2-b5'
+</code>
+===== Debugging... =====
+Some resources that you can use in the unlikely case that <del>you</del> some AI has introduced <del>features</del> bugs in your code
+==== Built-in tools ====
+Read the documentation of:
+  * [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/pdb.html|pdb, The Python Debugger]]
+  * and the other built-in [[https://docs.python.org/3/library/debug.html|Debugging and Profiling tools]]
+==== Using a decorator to log function calls ====
+Check the example in [[https://blog.devgenius.io/my-lazy-secret-to-cleaner-code-python-decorators-d43d673a1ba2|My Lazy Secret to Cleaner Code: Python Decorators]]
+Note: more about [[#using_log_files_aka_logging|using log files]]
 /*
-==== Tip template ====
+===== Tip template =====
 <code>Some code</code>